Wednesday, July 6, 2016

民主的政治平等与多数暴政

民主就是“选主”?既然现代民主的核心是竞争性的选举制度,那么民主会不会沦为“选主”呢?“选主”的英文是electocracy,可直译为“选举统治”。国内有著名学者指出现代民主已经沦为“选主”,意指两个主要的含义。
 
第一,“选主”是指选举统治者,然后由选举出来的一个或一群统治者行使统治权,而这已背离了“人民当家作主”的本意。
第二,“选主”按英文本意是指选举决定的统治,选举本身成为统治或政治的核心问题。这样,可能影响乃至操纵选举的力量就有可能左右政治。倘若财富能够控制选举,民主甚至会从“选主”沦为“金主”。
 
约瑟夫·熊彼特认为,民主并不意味着人民的直接统治,而只是意味着人民有选择谁来统治的权利……实际上,与非民主政体相比,民主政体的巨大优势就在于人民有权选择统治者,而其他政体下的统治者要么是自我任命的,要么是一个小圈子任命的。
 
第二种批评的观点也有类似的问题。民主政治既然承认“一人一票”,就意味着民主在基本的方面是“数人头的政治”。当然,每个人的政治影响力是不同的。那些有较强的组织动员力量、较大的言论与话语权以及丰裕的财务资源的人会拥有更大的政治影响力,从而可以在更大程度上左右选举与政治的结果。从这个意义上讲,民主确保的是权利与形式上的政治平等,而不能确保结果与实质上的政治平等。即便如此,投票规则仍然是一人一票和多数决定,这就是人类社会可能实践的一种政治平等。想让每个人发挥完全同等的政治影响力,这是任何社会、任何制度都做不到的。而且,普通选民还可以在同样拥有巨大政治影响力的不同政治精英团体之间做选择。此外,为了防止资本力量过分干预选举,很多民主国家还设定政治献金法,规定个人与企业政治捐款的上限。
 
民主会导致多数暴政?
 
民主思想史上,多数暴政是最著名的概念之一。这个概念由于法国思想家托克维尔和英国思想家约翰·密尔的论述而广为流传,深得人心。尽管多数暴政被保守主义思想家视为民主可能的弊害之一,但在近现代历史进程中,严格意义上的多数暴政情形并不多见。较为著名的例子恐怕要数法国大革命过程中的群众政治。比如,他们未经审判就把不少贵族和政治活动家送上了绞架。而对古典自由主义者或自由至上论者来说,一国内部具有“民粹化”取向的公共政策都可以被视为多数暴政的情形。比如,过高的税收与过高的福利相结合的公共政策,在他们看来有可能构成穷人对富人的变相掠夺。当然,这是否属于多数暴政肯定会存在争议。
 
尽管多数暴政是民主条件下可能出现的一种极端情形,但现代民主政体已经发展出了抑制多数暴政的两种主要机制:一是民主与法治的联姻,二是民主内部的权力制衡。法治所崇尚的法律至上原则,不仅确定了政府权力的边界,而且规制了民主决策可能的边界。此外,现代民主制下政治权力不会集中在一个人或一个机构手中,无论是美国式的总统制还是英国式的议会制都有分权制衡机制。所以,作为一种制度组合,现代民主政体不唯独强调政治参与和多数决定,还强调法治与权力制衡——后者通常是多数暴政的刹车片。
 
从全球范围看,民主并不必然导致高质量的公共治理。民主能否带来高质量的公共治理,主要取决于该国的政治家与选民如何运作民主。
 
- 包刚升,《被误解的民主》,2015
 

Sunday, July 3, 2016

民主是一个政治哲学命题?

目前学界和媒体通常把民主当成一个政治哲学问题来处理。比如,最常见的讨论议题包括民主是否优于其他政体,以及民主的优势与弊端等;最经常被提及的人物包括法国启蒙思想家卢梭,法国思想家托克维尔和《民主新论》作者萨托利等;最著名的引用语包括“民主是个好东西”(哈佛大学教授塞缪尔·亨廷顿在《第三波》前言中的话),以及“多数的暴政”等。这些热点内容大致反映出国内对民主问题的关注重点与普遍认知。
 
民主的哲学思辨当然非常重要。但是,最近半个世纪以来,民主主要是一个转型问题。离开转型谈民主,意义不是太大。与哲学思辨相比,转型研究更多关注经验世界已经发生什么和正在发生什么,而非“应该”发生什么。
 
如今,大众视野里的民主要么是政治哲学意义上的民主,要么是作为发达国家民主典范的英美民主。前者往往把民主理解为一个“应然”的问题,后者容易把民主过分理想化。但是,特别是对于发展中地区来说,经验世界里的民主与实际发生的转型,跟前面两种解读都相去甚远。所以,只有关注转型问题,才不会以过分简单化的思维来理解民主。
 
转型是一个单向线性的进程?
 
即便进入经验世界,不少人容易把转型理解为一个单向线性的进程,众所周知的转型三步曲是:旧政体的瓦解、新政体的创建和新政体的巩固。顺利完成转型三步曲的最著名案例要算美国。美国人第一步是通过1776~1783年的独立战争赶走了英国人,旧政体瓦解了;第二步是1787年制定宪法以及随后建立联邦政府,新政体创建了;第三步是宪法的有效运转及政治制度的完善,新政体巩固了。
 
但是,需要提醒的是,美国通常被视为政治发展的特例。其他大国——诸如法国、德国、意大利、日本等,从传统政治向现代政治的转型都经历过较为曲折的过程,这些国家至少都经历过一次民主政体的崩溃。
 
从很多国家的经验来看,转型就如同新政体的分娩过程,可能伴随着巨大的痛苦与反复的挣扎。这样,就不难理解乌克兰的转型难题与政治危机。有的国家至今还在转型道路上徘徊,比如泰国。

包刚升,《被误解的民主》,2015

Thursday, June 30, 2016

The Meanings of the “World”

In the New Testament, the term world (Gk. kosmos) has three basic meanings: (1) the earth, the created order; (2) the nations, the human community; (3) the ways of fallen humanity, alienated from God and his truth. It is this third sense of the term that I have suggested is largely equivalent to "modernity" in contemporary Western culture. It is worthy of note that this sense of the term as it appears in the New Testament signifies not a sociological reality but a theological reality. This may explain why worldliness is so frequently being missed, or misjudged, in the evangelical church today: it takes theological sense, theological judgment to recognize it, and that is precisely what has disappeared from the church.

This "world," then, is the way in which our collective life in society (and the culture that goes with it) is organized around the self in substitution for God. It is life characterized by self-righteousness, selfcenteredness, self-satisfaction, self-aggrandizement, and self-promotion, with a corresponding distaste for the self-denial proper to union with Christ. As comfortable as this self-centered reordering of moral and spiritual reality may seem, however, it is inevitably attended by "worldly grief" (2 Cor. 7:10), because, having displaced God from the center of our personal universe, we have made it impossible to care for ourselves as we should. The triumph of the self is always Pyrrhic; it amounts to a paradoxical abandonment of the true self, a ruin that begins to cast its shadows over the human spirit long before the day in which God's judgment is heard.

There is a clear line, then, between those who belong to Christ and those who do not, a line separating two very different ways of viewing self and world. If we stay with John, we can easily see how sharply he differentiates these two spiritual realms. "Those who belong to the church have been born of God (1 John 3:1-3); those who belong to the world have not (1 John 4:4-6). The church belongs to Christ (1 John 3:7-10); the world belongs to Satan (1 John 5:19), its "prince" (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11). All that is of Christ endures forever; all that is of the world is transient, fading (1 John 2:17), and under God's judgment (1 John 4:17). Love for God, therefore, is utterly incompatible with love of the world (1 John 2:15).

Bultmann has suggested that John shaped this antithesis between the character of God and the nature of life in four ways, contrasting light and darkness, truth and falsehood, freedom and bondage, and life and death.(' These categories are not mutually exclusive, of course; in fact, they overlap in significant ways.

 - David F. Wells, God in the Wasteland: 
The Reality of Truth in a World of Fading Dreams, 1994.

Tuesday, May 31, 2016

The West Is in the Midst of Huge Cultural Shifts?

 What are these cultural changes that have contributed to the marginalization of the church? 

First, we are in the midst of a shift from modernity to postmodernity, postmodernity. This shift represents a challenge to the main assertions of modernity, with its pursuit of order, the loss of tradition, and the separation of the different spheres of reality, expressed, for example, in the separation of the sacred and the profane at every level. More often than not, the church has found itself taking the side of modernity, defending its project against all viewpoints.

Second, we are embroiled in a shift from Westernization to globalization.

Third, we are engaged in a communication revolution, as we shift from a print culture to an electronic-based culture. 

Fourth, we are in the midst of a dramatic shift in our economic mode of production, as we transition from national and industrial-based economies to economies that are international, information based, and consumer driven. 

Fifth, we are on the verge of significant breakthroughs in understanding the human at a biological level. Sixth, we are seeing a convergence of science and religion that has not been seen in centuries.

- Gibbs, Eddie; Bolger, Ryan K. Emerging Churches. 2005.

Saturday, May 28, 2016

Who is 'Pharisee'

The Pharisees (cf. NBD, pp. 924–925) were spiritual descendants of pious groups that had successfully opposed the notoriously cruel government of Antiochus Epiphanes (175–163 BC). This Syrian monarch had attempted to obliterate the Jewish faith. The Pharisees were extremely scrupulous about observing every minute detail of the law of God as they understood it, and were engaged in establishing an oral tradition about how that law was to be obeyed. At the same time they were in certain respects innovators, not mere traditionalists, for the creative and innovative manipulation of the oral tradition meant they were able to meet new challenges and situations more imaginatively than could mere traditionalists. Josephus, a first-century soldier-historian, tells us that there were about six thousand Pharisees in his day (Jos., Ant. xvii. 42). They met in ‘fellowship groups’ and controlled the teaching of many synagogues around the country. Most priests and Levites, however, belonged to the party of the Sadducees (whom John does not explicitly mention, probably in part because they were no longer a significant power at the time of writing). The Sadducees held to the authority of the written word alone, and judged the Pharisees to be both too innovative and too particular on many fronts. Their power was centred in Jerusalem and its temple–and therefore in the priests and Levites.

The Gospel according to John, by D. A. Carson. (PNTC)

Wednesday, November 25, 2015

True Identity is A Gift of God

There are many false ways of achieving uniqueness. These all result from attempts to create a self rather than receive the gift of my self-in-Christ. But the uniqueness that comes from being our true self is not a uniqueness of our own making. Identity is never simply a creation. It is always a discovery. True identity is always a gift of God. 
 
The desire for uniqueness is a spiritual desire. So too is the longing to be authentic. These are not simply psychological longings, irrelevant to the spiritual journey. Both are the response of spirit to Spirit—the Holy Spirit calling us home to our place and identity in God. 
 
Being most deeply your unique self is something that God desires, because your true self is grounded in Christ. God created you in uniqueness and seeks to restore you to that uniqueness in Christ. Finding and living out your true self is fulfilling your destiny.
 
- David G. Benner, The Gift of Being Yourself: The Sacred Call to Self-Discovery, 2015

Sunday, November 15, 2015

The Spiritual Journey

There are two very good reasons to describe the spiritual life in terms of a journey. First, it fits well with our experience. We are aware that the self that begins the spiritual journey is not the same as the one that ends it. The changes in identity and consciousness—how we understand what it means to be me and our inner experience of passing through life—are both sufficiently profound as to be best described as transformational. The same is true for the changes in our capacity for love and the functioning of our will and desires.

The second reason is that the spiritual journey involves following a path. Much more than adopting a set of beliefs, a path is a practice or set of practices that will characterize our whole life. Following this path is the way we participate in our transformation. It is the way we journey into God and, as we do, discover that all along we have already been in God. It is the way our identity, consciousness and life become grounded in our self-in-God and God’s self-in-us.

Christian spirituality is taking on the mind and heart of Christ as we recognize Christ as the deepest truth of our being. It is actualizing the Christ who is in us. It is becoming fully and deeply human. It is experiencing and responding to the world through the mind and heart of God as we align ourselves with God’s transformational agenda of making all things

 - David G. Benner, The Gift of Being Yourself: The Sacred Call to Self-Discovery, 2015